میں نے اپنی ریسرچ کے لئے یورپ کی نشاۃ ثانیہ کو بنیاد کر اپنے لئے بھی پاکستان کی نشاۃ ثانیہ کو ہی مقصد بنا کر کام کیا ہے اور مکمل اوریجنل تحقیی کام پیش کیا ہے اور اندھی تقلید تو ایک جگہ تقلید کو بھی استعمال نہیں کیا۔ یہ مضمون پڑھنے کے بعد آپ کو میری چوائس کی داد دینے میں دیر نہیں لگے گی۔ اللہ تعالی سے التجا ہے کہ اس کام کو قبول فرمائے۔ امین
WHAT IS RENAISSANCE
نشاۃ ثانیہ کیا ہے
اس کا مطلب دو بارہ زندہ ہونا ہے۔
زندہ آج کے دن ہوا جاتا ہے ۔ ماضی میں نہیں۔ آج کی دنیا کے انسانوں میں جگہ بنانی ہوتی ہے ہے۔ قوم کو زندہ کرنے کا کام ہمیشہ اآج کی دنیا میں ، رہنے والا، مشاہدہ کرنے والا، نتیجے نکالنے والا، اوریجنل سوچ رکھنے والا، لوگوں کی پستی، غربت، بدمعاشوں کے استحصال کی پہچان رکھنے والا لوگوں کا ہمدرد انسان ہی کر سکتا ہے۔ کوئی بھی ماضی میں زندہ رہنے والا، اندھی تقلید کا قائل نہیں کر سکتا۔ کیونکہ لیڈر نے اآج کی دنیا کے ملکوں سے مقابلہ کرنا ہوتا ہے اور جیتنا بھی ہوتا ہے۔ میں نے یورپ کی نشاۃ ثانیہ سے سیکھ کر اپنا پروگرام بنانے کے لئے تفصیل دے دی ہے۔
اس لئے سب سے پہلے ہم نے یہ دیکھنا ہے کہ کامیا ب قومیں کیسے ترقی کر کے اس اعلی مقام پر کیسے پہنچی ہیں۔ ان سے ہی سیکھنا ہوتا ہے اور کوئی طریقہ نہیں ہوتا۔ مگر قومی مقصد کا بھی تعین اللہ تعالی نے کر دیا ہے کیونکہ مقصد بنائے بغیر کچھ حاصل نہیں کیا جا سکتا اور وہ ی ہر مسلم ملک بشمول پاکستان یہ ہے۔سورہ انفال۔-60
۔960. And make ready against them all you can of power, including steeds of war (tanks, planes, missile, artillary) to threaten the enemy of Allah and your enemy, and others besides whom you
ómay not know but whom Allah does know. and whatever you will spend in the cause of Allah shall be repaid unto you and you shall not be treated unjustly. anfal, ayat 60 -.
1۔یہی ہمارے نبی کا حکم ہے کہ حکمت کی بات جہاں سے ملے لے لو،حکمت، عقل مندی تمہارا گم شدہ خزانہ ہے
Hadith on Hikmah: Wisdom is the lost property of believers
Abu Huraira reported: The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “The word of wisdom is the lost property of the believer. Wherever he finds it, he is most deserving of it.”
Source: Sunan al-Tirmidhī 2687Grade: Hasan (fair) according to Al-Suyuti
2۔ یہی اللہ تعالی کا حکم ہے کہ باپ دادا کی رسوم کی پیروی مت کرو۔ جو اللہ تعالی اور اس کا رسول کہتا ہے وہ مانو۔ سورہ بقرہ۔ آیات 167۔168۔170
2-170. When it is said to them: “Follow what Allah has sent down.” They say: “Nay! We shall follow what we found our fathers following.” (Would they do that!) Even though their fathers did not understand anything nor were they guided? 2-165. And of mankind are some who take (for worship) others besides Allah as rivals (to Allah). They love them as they love Allah. But those who believe, love Allah more (than anything else). If only, those who do wrong could see, when they will see the torment, that all power belongs to Allah and that Allah is Severe in punishment. 2-166. When those who were followed, disown (declare themselves innocent of) those who followed (them), and they see the torment, then all their relations will be cut off from them. 2-167. And those who followed will say: “If only we had one more chance to return (to the worldly life), we would disown (declare ourselves as innocent from) them as they have disowned (declared themselves as innocent from) us.” Thus Allah will show them their deeds as regrets for them. And they will never get out of the Fire
۔ اللہ تعالی یہ بھی کہتا ہے کہ سورہ بقرہ۔ آیت 141۔ وہ ماضی کی ایک امت، گروہ یا نسل تھی۔ گزر گئی ان کے اعمال ان کے ساتھ، تمہارے اعمال تمہارے ساتھ۔ اور تم سے نہیں پوچھا جائے گا کہ وہ کیا کرتے تھے۔
2-141. That was a nation who has passed away. They shall receive the reward of what they earned, and you of what you earn. And you will not be asked of what they used to do.
تویہ ہدایت ہمیں ، ہر نئی نسل کو حق دیتی ہے کہ تم خود اپنے حالات کے مطابق اپنے مفادات میں فیصلے کرو۔
4۔ اسی آیت کی تفصیل میں اللہ کے نبی نے ہدایت کی ہے کہ ہرسو سال بعد یعنی تین نسل بعد نشاۃ ثانیہ کی ضرورت پڑ جائے گی۔
Prophet sal Allahu alayhi wasallam said “
At the head of every one hundred years, Allah will send to this nation one who will reviver for it its Religion. ” Sunan Abu Dawuud, Kitaab ul-Malaaham, hadeeth no. 4291
“This knowledge will be carried by the trustworthy ones of every generation – they will expel from it the alterations made by those going beyond bounds, the false claims of the liars, and the false interpretations of the ignorant” Mishkaat ul-Masaabeeh, hadeeth no. 248 and classified as authentic
it is not a condition that the reviver be a reviver of the religion only, rather he can be a reviverin everything which benefits the Muslims. So he could, for example, be a reviver in history, a reviver in medicine-, at one period, a gathering of a number of revivers, each one in his own specialist field.
What is important is that Allah does not leave this Ummah without providing it with someone to awaken .We absolutely need to emphasise this meaning, in order to fight the wave of despair whose tide has risen۔Siryed Ahmad khan, put us on the path of modern education, followed by Allama Iqbal, then in political field Muhammad Ali Jinnah. And many others in post 1857 years.
But ater 1947, we lost track and religious leaders appeared on the scene in the name of Islami Nizam, claiming to rule muslim countries, which they were ill equipped as well as never assigned this role of leadership from time immorial. On the contrary they are the ones who destroy teachings of their prophets and Allah had to send new prophets to revive the true religion. With this proof from the past, the revivers will come from normal life and revival will be all fields encompassing ,simultaneously to revive the life as a whole to make country strong and prosperous. Pl ease see the reference aims from European Renaissance.
WHAT IS RENAISSANCE
The Renaissance was
a time of creativity and change in many areas
political, social, economic, and cultural.
the way people viewed themselves and their world.
Renaissance thinkers explored the human experience in the here and now.
They emphasized individual achievement.
The Renaissance ideal was the person with talent in many fields.
The Renaissance of ‘Individual is the actual Renaissance oF society
اس مختصر سے تفصیل سے واضح ہو جاتا ہے کہ نشاۃ ثانیہ کے لئے آج کی دنیا کے ماحول کو دیکھنا ہو گا کہ طاقت ور کون کون ہے۔ ہم نے طاقور بننا ہے تو اس قوم سے ہر لحاظ میں مقابلے کے برابر نہیں بلکہ اس سے زیادہ طاقتور بننا ہے۔ مقابلہ انسانوں نے کرنا ہے تو ہمارا ایک ایک فرد ان سے بہتر ہونا چاہئے۔ اس لئے ساری توجہ سب سے پہلے انسانوں پر کرنی ہو گی۔ پھر یہی انسان طاقت کے تمام ذرائع پیدا کریں گے۔۔ ہر عورت مرد کو دنیا میں بہترین بننا ہو گا۔۔ دوسری بات یا مقصد اءیڈیاز کی دنیا میں دوسروں سے بہتر بننا ہو گا۔ تقلیدی ذہن نئے آئیڈیا پیدا نہیں کر سکتے تو پھر لیڈرشپ کے بھی اہل نہیں ہوتے۔ اسی رشپن ہوئی ہیں کی خاصیتیں بھی بیان ہوئی ہیں کہ وہ جسمانی طاقتور اور علمی لحاظ سے بی طاقتور ہونا چاہئے تا کہ اوریجنل سوچ سوچ سکے۔ ہمارے مذہبی لیڈر کلیم تو کرتے ہیں مگر لیڈر کی ہر صفت میں زیرو ہوتے ہیں ۔
اس لئے ہم عوام کو ہی نشاۃ ثانیہ کی لیڈرشپ سنبھالنی ہوگی۔ اور کوئی چارہ اور آپشن نہیں ہے۔ اور عوام میں سے ہی فیلڈ کے ماہرین مل سکتے ہیں ۔ بلکہ مذہب کی سمجھ بھی صرف عوام میں ہی پائی جاتی ہے۔
میں اب نیچے صرف یورپین نشاۃ ثانیہ کے اصول صرف اکٹھے کر کے دے رہا ہوں۔ یہ سب کے سب قرآنی اور نبوی اصول ہیں سوشل زندگی کے اصول۔ ان کو اپنائے بغیر ہم نہ ہی ترقی کر سکتے ہیں اور نہ ہی پاکستان میں اسلامی کلچر اور تہذیب کو قائم کر سکتے ہیں ۔ ہم نے پوری دنیا میں اللہ کا پیغام پہنچانےا کی ذمہ داری پوری کرنی ہے تو اسلامی تہذیب کی مساوات ، انصاف ،سچ، امانت، انسانیت کی خدمت کا جھنڈا لے کر اٹھنا ہو گا۔ جس کے لئے ہر پاکستانی عورت اور مرد کو بہترین ، قابل، انسان بنانا ہو گا۔ جس کے لئے نیشن بلڈنگ کے اصولوں سے بھی روشناس کرانا ضروری ہے۔ جو یہ ہیں ۔
The nation-building means
creating a country that functions out of a non-functioning one –
through, establishing trusted institutions of national government. either because the old one has been destroyed in a war, has fallen apart, or never really worked properly, as occurred in Iraq, the Soviet Union, and Afghanistan respectively.
primary objectives of nation-building?
The primary objective are;
– -to make a violent society peaceful. Ñ
;- Security, food, shelter, and basic services should be provided first Ò
Economic and political objectives can be pursued once these first-order needs are met.
Nation builders are those members of a state who take the initiative to develop the national community through government programs, including military conscription and national content mass schooling.
In the modern era, nation-building referred to the efforts of newly independent nations, to establish trusted institutions of national government, education, military defence, elections, land registry, import customs, foreign trade, foreign diplomacy, banking, finance, taxation, company registration, police, law, courts, healthcare, citizenship, citizen rights and liberties, marriage registry, birth registry, immigration, transport infrastructure and/or municipal governance charters. Nation-building can also include attempts to redefine the populace of territories that had been carved out by colonial powers or empires without regard to ethnic, religious, or other boundaries, as in Africa and the Balkans. These reformed states could then become viable and coherent national entities.
The Medina Constitution also instituted peaceful methods of dispute resolution among diverse groups living as one people but without assimilating into one religion, language, or culture.[15] Welch in Encyclopedia of Islam states: “The constitution reveals his Muhammad’s great diplomatic skills, for it allows the ideal that he cherished of an ummah (community) based clearly on a religious outlook to sink temporarily into the background and is shaped essentially by practical considerations.” [16]
مگر بدقسمتی دیکھئے کہ ہمارے مذہبی لیڈر میثاق مدینہ کی سنت پر عمل نہیں کرنا چاہتے جبکہ پوری ترقی یافتہ ممالک اس پر سو فیصد عمل کر کے ہی امن سے رہ کر ترقی کر رہے ہیں اور طاقتور ترین ملک ہیں ۔ جس کی وجہ سے ہم وحدت فکر سے محروم ہیں۔ ہمارے کنفیوژن کی وجہ بھی ہمارے مذہبی رہنما ہی ہیں ۔ یہ اپنی رائے پر اڑے رہتے ہیں اور نہ ہی ان میں کوئی مرکزی تنظیم ہے جس میں ایک فائنل فیصلہ کرنے والا ہو۔ نہ ہی یہ ملک میں اتحاد قائم کرنے دیتے ہیں نہ ہی یہ اللہ کے حکم کے مطابق ملکی حکمران کی سو فیصد فرمانبردای کرتے ہیں بلکہ ہر مسلمان ملک میں ایک متوازی مذہبی حکومت قائم ہے جو ملک کو چلنے نہیں دیتی۔
اس مختصر سے تبصرے کے بعد میں دوسرے ملکوں کی نشاۃ ثانیہ کے اصول اور طریقے دے رہا ہوں ہر ایک سے درخواست ہے کہ اس کو بنیاد بنا کر مزید سٹڈی کریں ۔ میں خود بھی نشاۃ ثانیہ کیسے کی جا سکتی ہے ؟ کے موضوع پر تحقیق کر کے اپ لوڈ کرونگا۔ اپنی تحقیق اگر میرے ساتھ شیئر کرنا چاہئیں تو ضرور بھیجیں جو اپ لوڈ کر دی جائے گی۔
علامہ اقبال کیا کہتے ہیں
ہے زندہ فقط وحدت افکار سے ملت وحدت ہو جس سے فنا وہ الہام بھی الہاد
وحدت کی حفاظت نہیں بے قوت بازو آتی نہیں کچھ کام یہاں عقل خدا دا
اے مرد خد ا تجھ کو وہ قوت نہیں حاصل جا بیٹھ کسی غار میں کر اللہ کو یاد
ملا کو جو ہند میں ہے سجدے کی اجازت نادا ں سمجھتا ہے کہ اسلام ہے ازاد
ہم میں وحدت افکار کی جگہ کتنا اختلاف رائے ہے جس سے عوام بھی کنفیوژ ہے۔ ریفرنس دیکھیں ۔
اسلامی ریاست یا سیکولر ریاست یا مذ ہبی ریاستم جمہوریت یا خلافت؟
ہم کیا چاہتے ہیں ؟ ہم کیوں میثاق مدینہ کی سنت نبوی پر عمل کیوں نہیں کرنا چاہتے۔؟ا
The pro-Congress Maulana Hussain Ahmad Madni asserted that Misaq-e-Madina (Charter of Madina) had created a nation of equals comprising Muslims, Jews and Christians. The pro-Muslim League Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi argued that the treaty placed Muslims in the leading position while the Jews and Christians were protected minorities.
Muslim politician Maulana Abdul Basit of Hyderabad Deccan, India maintained that “the minority community should be treated the same as the majority community.”
But Muslim politician from Pakistan Maulana Abul’Ala Maududi asserted that non-Muslims cannot be at par with Muslims.
The Indian Muslims want a secular state while a sizable number of people in Pakistan want an Islamic state.
But can there be an Islamic state? Yes! But it would either be a Sunni state or Shia state or Wahabi state where even some segments of Muslims will always remain in a minority-like Shias are in a minority in Pakistan which is primarily a Sunni state while Sunnis are a minority in Iran which is a Shia state.
So when there cannot be an Islamic state which treats its citizens equally and without discrimination, why not there be a secular state where no connection exists between state religion and the citizenry while every citizen stands equal before the state!
افراد کے ہاتھوں میں ہے اقوام کی تقدیر ہر فرد ہے ملت کے مقدر کا ستارا
مگر ہم فرد کی بجائے مذہب، ملک، سیاست کو ترجیح دیتے ہیں ۔ دیکھئے یورپ نشاۃ ثانیہ کیا کہتی ہے۔ Individuals become more important than churches, guilds, etc.
QUALITIES OF LEADERSIP
ANDHI TAQLEED AND HAVE NO MINDS OF THEIR OWN ND CANNOT MAKE THEIR OWN DECISIONS< CANNOT BE LEADERS OF MUSLIMS AND DECIDE THEIR MATTERS MAY THEY BE SOCIAL< OR RELIGIOUS>
THAT’S WHY ALLAH HAD NEVER CHOSEN A NEW PROPHET ROM RELIGIOUS LEADERS OF PREVIOUS PROPHETS BUT ALWAYS CHOSE A COMMON MAN< TRAINED HIM TO BE ANEW LEADER AND PROPHET.
JEWS ASK THEIR PROPHET OF THE TIME TO APPOINT A KING FFOR THEM SO THAT THEY CAN FIGHT IN ALLAH’S WAY
2-246. Have you not thought about the group of the Children of Israel after (the time of) Musa (Moses)? When they said to a Prophet of theirs, “Appoint for us a king and we will fight in Allah’s Way.” He said, “Would you then refrain from fighting, if fighting was prescribed for you?” They said, “Why should we not fight in Allah’s Way while we have been driven out of our homes and our children (families have been taken as captives)?” But when fighting was ordered for them, they turned away, all except a few of them. And Allah is All-Aware of the Zalimun (polytheists and wrong-doers).
JEWS REFUSE TO ACCEPT TALUT AS THEI KING BECAUSE HE HAD NO WAELTH
ALLAH’S CRITERIA OF CHOOSING A LEADER
2-247. And their Prophet (Samuel) said to them, “Indeed Allah has appointed Talut (Saul) as a king over you.” They said, “How can he be a king over us when we are better fitted than him for the kingdom, and he has not been given enough wealth.”
He said: “Verily, Allah has chosen him above you and has increased him abundantly in knowledge and stature. And Allah grants His Kingdom to whom He wills. And Allah is All-Sufficient for His creatures’ needs, All-Knower.”
ALLAH ALWAYS REPLACES BAD PEOPLE TO ELIMINATE MISCHIEF IN THE WORLD
2-250. And when they advanced to meet Jalut (Goliath) and his forces, they invoked: “Our Lord! Pour forth on us patience and make us victorious over the disbelieving people.”
2-251. So they routed them by Allah’s Leave and Dawud (David) killed Jalut (Goliath), and Allah gave him [Dawud (David)] the kingdom [after the death of Talut (Saul) and Samuel] and Al-Hikmah (Prophethood), and taught him of that which He willed.
And if Allah did not check one set of people by means of another, the earth would indeed be full of mischief. But Allah is full of Bounty to the ‘Alamin (mankind, jinns and all that exists).
2-252. These are the Verses of Allah, We recite them to you (O Muhammad ) in truth, and surely, you are one of the Messengers (of Allah).2-253. Those Messengers! We preferred some to others; to some of them Allah spoke (directly); others He raised to degrees (of honour); and to ‘Iesa (Jesus), the son of Maryam (Mary), We gave clear proofs and evidences, and supported him with Ruh-ul-Qudus [Jibrael (Gabriel)]. If Allah had willed, succeeding generations would not have fought against each other, after clear Verses of Allah had come to them, but they differed – some of them believed and others disbelieved. If Allah had willed, they would not have fought against one another, but Allah does what He likes.
WHAT IS RENAISSANCE
The Renaissance was
a time of creativity and change in many areaspolitical, social, economic, and cultural.
the way people viewed themselves and their world.
Renaissance thinkers explored the human experience in the here and now.
They emphasized individual achievement.The Renaissance ideal was the person with talent in many fields.
Three important values different from middle ages
Individualism: Celebration of the Individual Humanism: Love of Classical Learning Secularism: Enjoyment of of Worldly Pleasures
INDIVIDUALISM
celebrating individual
Individuals become more important than churches, guilds, etc.
Artists wanted to be remembered- everyone did Biographies and portrait painting
emphasize the importance of individuals
How is this different from the Middle Ages?
Humanism-
the study of classical culture
What every educated person should know
Focused Greece and Rome
scholars rejected the culture of the Middle ages
returned to Greek and Roman culture
All art was inspired by Greece and Rome
Freestanding statues
Secularism
Secularism: the belief that religion should have no part in political or public affairs( and is a personal matter)
Enjoy worldly pleasures/luxuries Clothes, jewels, food
Art had more earthly subjects
The Renaissance of ‘Individual is the actual Renaissance oF society
What should a Renaissance Man Look Like
Broad knowledge about many things in different fields.Deep knowledge/skill in one area.
Able to link information from different areas/disciplines and create new knowledge.
The Greek ideal of the “well-rounded man” was at the heart of Renaissance education.
Some characteristics of Ideal Woman
Expected to be well educated, especially in the classics
Charming, Polite and Witty…
Dancing, singing, poetry and music were all necessities
Also, being strong and athletic is important
What are the main points of the Renaissance?
a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic “rebirth” from the 14th century to the 17th century,
promoted the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art.
Top 5 Characteristics of Renaissance that Changed the World
A positive willingness to learn and explore.
Faith in the nobility of man- Humanism.( against church thought of man born with sin)
The discovery and mastery of linear perspective.
Rebirth of Naturalism.
Secularism.
major periods of the Renaissance?
Early Renaissance. High Renaissance Late Renaissance
Renaissance values,
. humanism, individualism, skepticism, well-roundedness(all rounder), secularism, and classicism .These values were reflected in buildings, writing, painting and sculpture, science, every aspect of their lives.
What is Renaissance thinking?
Renaissance thinkers consideredthe Middle Ages to have been a period of cultural decline.
They sought to revitalize their culture through re-emphasizing classical texts and philosophies.
They expanded and interpreted them, creating their own style of art, philosophy and scientific inquiry.J
Culture
Definition ; The word “culture” derives from the Latin which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture…the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively2.the ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a particular people or society. 2.the ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a particular people or society.Similar: the arts the humanities intellectual achievement(s) intellectual activit literature music Painting philosophy, Civilization society way of life lifestyle customs traditions heritage habits ways Mores values
What is Culture SOUN
Culture is a word for the ‘way of life’ of groups of people, meaning the way they do things. … Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture. An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior. The outlook, attitudes, values, morals, goals, and customs shared by a society.
Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, manners, shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs and understanding that are learned by socialization. Thus, it can be seen as the growth of a group identity fostered by social patterns unique to the group. “Culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language, marriage, music, what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors, how we behave with loved ones, and a million other things,”
Western culture;.The term “Western culture” means the culture of European countries as well as those that have been heavily influenced by European immigration, such as the United States,. Western culture has its roots in the Classical Period of the Greco-Roman era and the rise of Christianity in the 14th century.
Other drivers of Western culture include Latin, Celtic, Germanic and Hellenic ethnic and linguistic groups. Today, the influences of Western culture can be seen in almost every country in the world.
Eastern cultureEastern culture generally refers to the societal norms of countries in Far East Asia (including China, Japan, Vietnam, North Korea and South Korea) and the Indian subcontinent. Like the West, Eastern culture was heavily influenced by religion during its early development, but it was also heavily influenced by the growth and harvesting of rice, and Rice Cultures”, in Eastern culture there is less of a distinction between secular society and religious philosophy than there is in the West.
Latin culture ;.Many of the Spanish-speaking nations are considered part of the Latin culture,.
Middle Eastern culture ;.The countries of the Middle East have some but not all things in common. This is not a surprise, since the area consists of approximately 20 countries,. The Arabic language is one thing that is common throughout the region; Religion is another cultural area that the countries of the Middle East have in common. The Middle East is the birthplace of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
African culture ;.The continent of Africa is essential to all cultures. Human life originated on this continent and began to migrate to other areas of the world around 60,000 years ago, or as early as 120,000 years ago. Researchers come to these conclusions by studying human genomes from various cultures to trace their DNA to common ancestors. Fossil records also factor into some of these theories.
Africa is home to a number of tribes, ethnic and social groups. One of the key features of this culture is the large number of ethnic groups throughout the 54 countries on the continent. Nigeria alone has more than 300 tribes, for example.
Currently, Africa is divided into two cultural groups: North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. This is because Northwest Africa has strong ties to Middle East, while Sub-Saharan Africa shares historical, physical and social characteristics that are very different from North Africa, according to the University of Colorado. The harsh environment has been a large factor in the development of Sub-Saharan Africa culture, as there are a number of languages, cuisines, art and musical styles that have sprung up among the far-flung populations.
Constant change
No matter what culture a people are a part of, one thing is for certain, it will change. “Culture appears to have become key in our interconnected world, which is made up of so many ethnically diverse societies, but also riddled by conflicts associated with religion, ethnicity, ethical beliefs, and, essentially, the elements which make up culture,”. “But culture is no longer fixed, if it ever was. It is essentially fluid and constantly in motion.” This makes it so that it is difficult to define any culture in only one way.
While change is inevitable, the past should also be respected and preserved. The United Nations has created a group called The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to identify cultural and natural heritage and to conserve and protect it. Monuments, building and sites are covered by the group’s protection, according to the international treaty, the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. This treaty was adopted by UNESCO in 1972.
What is culture in simple words?
Global Civilizations
The definition of civilization, like that of many historical terms, varies from source to source. Throughout Essential Humanities, “civilization” simply means urban culture;
in other words, a culture with at least one city is considered a civilization. Essential Humanities defines the term city as a settlement with a population of at least ten thousand.
The term culture is defined by Essential Humanities as “the distinctive features of a group that are learned rather than biological”.
Language, artistic traditions, and religious beliefs all fall under this definition. Language is often the primary identifying feature of a culture; in European history, for instance, the Celts were people who spoke Celtic languages, the Greeks were people who spoke Greek, and so on.
Major World RegionsThe inhabited world can be divided into twelve major regions.
Major World Regions
Credit: Essential Humanities
The regions of North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia are known collectively as the Middle East.
Living Global Civilizations
The modern world arguably features four global civilizations, each of which spans much of the world’s population and territory. The nations within a global civilization share a common cultural foundation, despite their vacultural diversity.
Global Civilizations Map
Credit: Essential Humanities
The above map indicates the oldest global civilization in a given region; some parts of the world have experienced the arrival of another global civilization (overtop the original civilization). For instance, while South Asian civilization is the original global civilization of South Asia, Islamic civilization was eventually superimposed upon parts of South Asia (especially Pakistan and Bangladesh). In the modern age, Western civilization has been superimposed (to varying degrees) over the entire world.
A prominent example of cultural influence in the eastern Old World is Buddhism, which spread from India across East and Southeast Asia. A familiar example in the western Old World is the embrace, by the ancient Greeks, of much Mesopotamian and Egyptian culture. The flow of cultural influence across the New World is illustrated by similarities between Mesoamerican and Andean visual art.
Causes of Renaissance
1. INCREASED INTERACTION
The first main cause of the Renaissance was ;-
the increased interaction between different cultures and societies in the time before and during the start of the Renaissance.
This is important because at the time Europe was in the midst of the Middle Ages.
The Middle Ages (or Medieval Period) had several key features such as: feudalism and devout religious faith in the form of Christianity. These features (along with others) combined to form a society that was very rigid socially, religiously, and politically. This means that European society at the time was not necessarily open to change.
However, the essence of the Renaissance was that Europe experienced a shift in worldview and perspective. This shift was caused by new ideas, views and beliefs that Europe was exposed to in the centuries before the start of the Renaissance, which began in the 14th century.
ECONOMICS
Silk Road Map
the Silk Road’ from 1380
First, vast trade networks across Europe, Asia and Africa led to increased interaction between different societies which caused not only an exchange of goods, but also an exchange of people, beliefs, ideas and values.
The largest and most well known of these trade networks was the Silk Road. It is perhaps one of the earliest and largest trade networks in human history, and played a vital role to many different civilizations throughout Eurasia from approximately 120 BCE to 1450 CE.
At its height, the Silk Road stretched from Japan and China in the east to the Mediterranean area including Italy in the west, which was a span of over 4000 miles. Along the way it travelled through many different regions including: India, Persia, the Middle East, Africa and Eastern Europe. There were many different civilizations that participated in the Silk Road over the centuries of its existence.
Obviously, Chinese and Mongol traders played an important role in the Silk Road, as many of their goods were highly desired in faraway markets, such as Europe. Therefore, European traders often travelled to areas in the Middle East to secure rare and desirable products, from the far East.
For their part, the traders of the Middle Eastern civilization were essentially the middle men who traded goods from both sides. While the Silk Road is generally remembered for the food and goods that were traded along the route,
it is important to understand that the Silk Road also involved the exchange of ideas. As mentioned earlier, the Middle Eastern civilizations became major centers of learning and knowledge during this timeframe. For example, mathematicians from the Middle East used knowledge from eastern areas such as India to refine and improve mathematics, including methods that are still used today.
Furthermore, religious and philosophical beliefs from the time period spread easily along the routes and had a profound impact on later events such as the Renaissance.
For instance, after the Islamic faith originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century it quickly spread throughout the Middle East, Africa and even into parts of Europe, as traders brought their faith with them on the Silk Road.
This influx of new ideas inspired people in Europe including artists, writers, philosophers and more.
Crusades
The crusades were a major event in the Middle Ages and had a profound impact on the world at the time. For example, one of the first major impacts of the crusades was that it increased interaction between different societies and groups of people.For instance, the crusades caused the religions of Christianity, Judaism and Islam to clash. In this conflict, people of all faiths traveled vast distances to fight over the city of Jerusalem, which each faith considered important to its religious heritage.This clash of religious ideals caused a sharing of ideas between the different religious groups and helped the principles of each religious faith to spread into new areas.
note ;SUPERMACY IS IN HUMAN NATURE to conquer and enslave others on pretext of religion , culture, ethnicity, color, language,
Arguably, the clash between these three religions and this area of the world continues still today. Beyond religion, the interaction between different groups of people led to a spread of scientific and philosophical knowledge.The existence of the Silk Road had already caused a massive spread of ideas and knowledge across Eurasia, but the crusades continued and expanded the trend.
At the outbreak of the crusades in the 11th century, the Middle East was a major center of learning and knowledge. Due to its geographical location, the major Middle Eastern civilizations were at the crossroads of the Silk Road and therefore benefited greatly from having access to both European and Asian knowledge.
As such, when European crusaders came into contact with Middle Eastern peoples they were exposed to new ideas and inventions which eventually made their way back into European society.
For example, the Europeans learned new understandings about mathematics from Middle Eastern mathematicians who were by far the most advanced at that time.
Also related to knowledge, the different societies involved in the crusades were exposed to each other’s culture. This meant that each side learned new understandings about food, cultural practices and celebrations.
REDISCOVERY OF ANCIENT TEXTS
The next main cause of the Renaissance was the rediscovery by European thinkers of ancient Greek and Roman ideas and texts. For example, the term ‘renaissance’ in French means ‘rebirth’. This is in relation to the idea that the intellectual culture of the Renaissance was sparked by the rediscovery of these ancient philosophies and ideas which had largely been ignored in Europe throughout the Middle Ages.Many of these ancient texts were preserved by Islamic and Jewish cultures in the Middle East and were not rediscovered by Europeans until the time of the Renaissance.
More specifically, famous Italian Renaissance scholar and humanist Petrarch (also known as Francesco Petrarca) is remembered for rediscovering the earlier work of Roman philosopher Cicero. Cicero was born in Italy in 106 BC and died in 43 BC. He is regarded as one of the most masterful writers of his time and the Latin language. Petrarch’s rediscovery in the 14th century of Cicero’s letters is considered to be the spark of the Italian Renaissance and inspired other European scholars to do the same and look to ancient texts. Petrarch considered the ideas present in Cicero’s and other ancient texts as superior to the ideas present in Europe at the time of the Middle Ages. As well, Petrarch is considered to be the founder of the humanist movement during the Renaissance.
Petrarch Portrait from the mid-1400s.
In general, Renaissance Humanism was the study of ancient Greek and Roman texts with the goal of promoting new norms and values in society.
These norms and views varied from those at the time because they focused less heavily on a religious worldview.
Instead, Renaissance humanists such as Petrarch use ancient texts to promote a worldview based on logic and reason. This was to be accomplished through the study of the ‘studia humanitatis’, which today is known as the humanities and includes topics such as: grammar, history, poetry, and philosophy.
Renaissance humanists such as Petrarch (and others including Erasmus of Rotterdam) promoted the idea that citizens should be educated in these topics in order to allow them to participate in the social and political life of their society.
This was a fundamental shift from the feudalistic and religious life that was the reality for most people in the Europe in the Middle Ages. As such, Petrarch’s actions are considered to be important to the emergence and growth of the overall Renaissance.
INNOVATIONS
The next main cause of the Renaissance in Europe was the different innovations of the time, especially in publishing and art. In terms of publishing, the printing press was one of the most significant innovations in all of world history. German blacksmith, goldsmith and printer Johannes Gutenberg developed the first printing press in the mid-1400s
it quickly had a profound impact on the events of the Renaissance (as well as later events such as the Enlightenment). Prior to the printing press, books and other literature were created through a varied assortment of methods (woodblock press, etc.) which were all labor intensive and slow. Gutenberg’s invention was the development of a hand mold that allowed for precise movable type. This meant that he perfected the process of making movable type pieces for easily and quickly constructing type-font documents. This sped up the printing process and made it extremely affordable, which allowed for an explosion in the publishing and printing of books. For example, the Gutenberg Bible was the first book to be mass produced on the Gutenberg printing press. The invention and use of the printing press in Europe was important for the Renaissance because it allowed new ideas and worldviews to spread across the continent more easily.
This compilation explains the Renaissance values in detail
Renaissance people had certain common values,
humanism, individualism,skepticism , well-roundedness(all rounder),secularism, and classicism
classicism classicism; From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
What does classicism mean in history?
The terms classic or classical came into use in the seventeenth century to describe the arts and culture of the ancient civilisations of Greece and Rome. … Classicism is generally associated with harmony and restraint, and obedience to recognized standards of form and craftsmthe following of ancient Greek or Roman principles and style in art and literature, generally associated with harmony, restraint, and adherence to recognized standards of form and craftsmanship, especially from the Renaissance to the 18th century.
What is a simple definition of humanism?
The definition of humanism is a belief that human needs and values are more important than religious beliefs, or the needs and desires of humans. An example of humanism is the belief that the person creates their own set of ethics. An example of humanism is planting vegetables in garden beds.
Humanism is a philosophy or a way of thinking about the world. Humanism is a set of ethics or ideas about how people should live and act. People who hold this set of ethics are called humanists.
Humanists prefer critical thinking and evidence (rationalism and empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition.
What is humanism and what did it focus on?
Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively. … It views humans as solely responsible for the promotion and development of individuals and emphasizes a concern for humans in relation to the world.
s Humanism good or bad?Humanism is, instead, more of a pragmatic philosophy — humans are not necessarily good or evil but they do have the capacity to do both. It is important then that our social, political, and philosophic institutions be set up in such a way that we can encourage the good while discouraging theIevil.
What are the main features of humanism?
The main features of humanism are given below.
Humanism stressed on the individual skills. …
The Humanist thought had a very different idea of history. …
The establishment of the New Age would mark an end to the period of the supremacy of the Church. …
Humanism revived the classical Greek literature.
humanism
a rationalist outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters.
a Renaissance cultural movement which turned away from medieval scholasticism and revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman thought.
Humanism
(among some contemporary writers) a system of thought criticized as being centred on the notion of the rational, autonomous self and ignoring the conditioned nature of the individual.
Secular humanism
Political ideology
Secular humanism, often simply referred to as humanism, is a philosophy or life stance that embraces human reason, secular ethics, and philosophical naturalism while specifically rejecting religious dogma, supernaturalism, and superstition as the basis of morality and decision making. Wikipedia
Individualism
is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology and social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual. … Individualism has been used as a term denoting “[t]he quality of being an individual; individuality”, related to possessing “[a]n individual characteristic; a quirk”.
What are examples of individualism?
When you support yourself financially and do not depend on anyone else for your needs, this is an example of individualism. When the government allows citizens to be responsible for their own retirement instead of relying on social security, this is an example of individualism.
Proposed two-axis political spectrum chart with an economic axis and a socio-cultural axis, alongside ideologically representative colors
Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology and social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual.[1][2] Individualists promote the exercise of one’s goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance[3] and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group[3] while opposing external interference upon one’s own interests by society or institutions such as the government.[3] Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism and more corporate social forms.[4][5]
Individualism makes the individual its focus[1] and so starts “with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation”.[6] Anarchism, existentialism, liberalism and libertarianism are examples of movements that take the human individual as a central unit of analysis.[6] Individualism involves “the right of the individual to freedom and self-realization”.[7]
Individualism has been used as a term denoting “[t]he quality of being an individual; individuality”,[3] related to possessing “[a]n individual characteristic; a quirk”.[3] Individualism is also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors[3][8] such as with humanist philosophical positions and ethics.[9][10]
Skepticism or skepticism
is generally a questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more putative instances of knowledge which are asserted to be mere belief or dogma. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy, particularly epistemology
Definition of skepticism
1: an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object
2a: the doctrine that true knowledge or knowledge in a particular area is uncertain
b: the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism characteristic of skeptics
3: doubt concerning basic religious principles (such as immortality, providence, and revelation)
نبی کریم کا یہی حکم ہے
سوال پوچھنا شک کر کے سچ کی تلاش ار ثابت کرنا
اندھی تقلید اس کے مخالف ہوتی ہے کہ بزرگ کی بات فیس ویلیو پر ہی سچ مان لو سوال پوچھنا شک کرنے سے ان کی بے عزتی ہوتی ہے
well-roundedness (All Rounder)
If, on the other hand, well-roundedness means realizing and understanding that you live in a world with other people, with whom you have to get along to some degree; if it means that you have seen enough things and thought about enough, deeply enough, over the course of your life that you can function well in the many
What is a synonym for well rounded?
other words for well rounded
brilliant. conscious. discerning. experienced. intelligent.
What are the characteristics of a well rounded person?
Ten Traits of a Well-Rounded Child
• Balanced. A well-rounded child understands the importance of intellectual, emotional, and physical health, choosing to become involved in a variety of activities both at school and in the home.
Caring. …
Communicator. …
Inquirer. …
Knowledgeable. …
Open-minded. …
Principled. …
Reflective.
Ten Traits of a Well-Rounded Child
In today’s world of high-pressure standardized tests, traveling sports teams, and musical competitions, it’s easy to lose sight of what makes a kid. . .a kid. While skills and talents can enrich a child’s life, it’s a combination of key traits that bring them a daily sense of confidence and well-being while preparing them for the demands of adulthood. How well-rounded is your child?
1) Balanced
A well-rounded child understands the importance of intellectual, emotional, and physical health, choosing to become involved in a variety of activities both at school and in the home.
2) Caring
A well-rounded child learns to put others first by empathizing with feelings, making compassionate choices, and committing to a lifestyle of service.
3) Communicator
A well-rounded child can communicate confidently and creatively through a variety of means. They present their ideas clearly and collaborate with others effectively.
4) Inquirer
A well-rounded child doesn’t have to be told to learn. They love to discover new information naturally and develop the skills they need to become lifelong learners.
5) Knowledgeable
A well-rounded child acquires a broad base of knowledge by learning about the world across several disciplines. Rather than merely memorizing facts, they seek to make deep connections among concepts, ideas, and issues.
6) Open-minded
A well-rounded child sees interacting with other cultures as an opportunity to broaden their perspective. They enjoy seeking and understanding different points of view as a way to greater compassion and personal growth.
7) Principled
A well-rounded child values integrity and honesty, not only with their own academic work but within their own community. They stand for dignity and respect for all.
8) Reflective
A well-rounded child is able to think about their own learning, evaluating strengths and weaknesses in order to improve their academic and personal development.
9) Risk-taker
A well-rounded child has the confidence to approach new situations courageously, applying what they have already learned. They explore new ideas and roles with determination and resilience.
10) Thinker
A well-rounded child approaches problems with creative and critical thinking skills, making reasoned decisions. A thinking child is never afraid to ask, “Why?”
Developing these ten traits should be an adventure in a child’s personal development, not another burden to add to a checklist of “standards.” But how
Well-rounded meaning
The definition of well rounded is someone who is skilled, capable or knowledgeable in a lot of different things, or something that covers a lot of different areas or subjects.
An example of a well rounded person is someone who is good in school, plays sports and has a good relationship with his family.
Comprehensively developed and well-balanced in a range or variety of aspects.
A well-rounded scholar; a well-rounded curriculum.0 Showing interest or ability in many fields.0Showing many facets of personality.
A well-rounded character.0Having a fully developed or shapely figure..
A well-rounded fitness program incorporates strength training and flexibility along with cardio routines, so the best exercise charts will give you plenty of options for the types of workouts you do.
On the other hand, review sites such as DVD Talk provide well-rounded commentary not only about the goals of the DVD but also about the quality of the camera work, the congeniality of the hosts, and more.
Advertisement A Well-Rounded Education
Not that long ago, a high school diploma was a ticket to a middle-class job. Today, however, in too many states, earning a high school diploma might not even mean that students are eligible for college—let alone ready to succeed there.
A recent CAP report analyzed high school graduation requirements across the country and found that only two states—Louisiana and Tennessee—both align the coursework required to receive a high school diploma with public university admission standards and require a 15-credit college-ready course sequence that includes high-level math, science, English composition, U.S. and world history, and a foreign language.1
While alignment between high school and college requirements will improve college completion rates, the report also found that few states require students to complete a truly well-rounded education in order to graduate high school. However, students need exposure to a well-rounded education that includes the arts, humanities, sciences, social sciences, English, and math. This will allow them to be prepared for college, the 21st century workforce, and global citizenship. If this country truly wants to improve educational attainment and career preparedness, it is critical that it rethinks what it expects from high schools and how high school course requirements and the courses themselves are designed.
American students are falling behind
Since the 1990s, the United States has fallen behind on college completion, slipping from first in the world in 1995 to 10th in 2016.2 A major factor in the country’s low rates of college completion is a lack of true college preparation in the K-12 education system. On the National Assessment of Educational Progress, the math achievement of 12th graders has remained stagnant since 2005, and reading achievement is actually 5 scale score points lower than it was in 1992, more than 25 years ago.3Improving the quality of education in American high schools is not simply about requiring additional subjects for high school graduation; states must ensure that all students have access to rigorous coursework and the supports they need to be successful. States will also need to prepare the teaching workforce to meet these demands.
These investments are well worth the cost to the American taxpayer. The future of the nation depends on students having a high-quality, well-rounded education that will prepare them to successfully compete on a global stage and engage as citizens. States can start by ensuring that their high school graduation requirements reflect this standard and by rethinking the high school experience for students in order to give them the well-rounded education they deserve. To achieve this goal, states can adopt the course sequence required by most public universities for admission, investigate and address high school course quality, and do a better job tracking and reporting disaggregated data on high school course-taking patterns. Finally, states can encourage more innovation at the local level so that high schools can be designed around the needs of the 21st century..
secularism
The principle of separation of the state from religious institutions.
“he believes that secularism means no discrimination against anybody in the name of religion
CHALLENGING RELIGIOUS PRIVILEGE
The principles of secularism which protect and underpin many of the freedoms we enjoy are:
Separation of religious institutions from state institutions and a public sphere where religion may participate, but not dominate.
Freedom to practice one’s faith or belief without harming others, or to change it or not have one, according to one’s own conscience.
Equality so that our religious beliefs or lack of them doesn’t put any of us at an advantage or a disadvantage.
Secularism raises core questions in all of the humanities, about how we balance freedom of, and from, religion with other rights.
Separation of religion from state
The separation of religion and state is the foundation of secularism. It ensures religious groups don’t interfere in affairs of state, and the state doesn’t interfere in religious affairs.
In the United Kingdom there are officially two state recognised Christian denominations – the Church of England and the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. The Queen is both head of state and Supreme Governor of the Church of England. There is no established church in Northern Ireland or Wales.
But the 26 unelected bishops of the Church of England who sit in the House of Lords influence laws that affect the whole of the UK.
Christianity is one major influence among many that shape our current ways of life.
We are a nation of many denominations and religions. Large sectors of the population do not hold, or practise, religious beliefs.
If Britain were truly a secular democracy, political structures would reflect the reality of changing times by separating religion from the state.
Secularism protects both believers and non-believers
Secularism seeks to ensure and protect freedom of religious belief and practice for all citizens. Secularists want freedoms of thought and conscience to apply equally to all – believers and non-believers alike. They do not wish to curtail religious freedoms.
Religious Freedom
Secularism seeks to defend the absolute freedom of religious and other belief, and protect the right to manifest religious belief insofar as it does not impinge on the rights and freedoms of others. Secularism ensures that the right of individuals to freedom of religion is always balanced by the right to be free from religion.
Secularism is about democracy and fairness
In a secular democracy all citizens are equal before the law and parliament. No religious or political affiliation gives advantages or disadvantages and religious believers are citizens with the same rights and obligations as anyone else.
Secularism champions universial human rights above religious demands. It upholds equality laws that protect women, LGBT people and minorities from religious discrimination. These equality laws ensure that non-believers have the same rights as those who identify with a religious or philosophical belief.
Equal access to public services
We all share hospitals, schools, the police and the services of local authorities. It is essential that these public services are secular at the point of use, so no-one is disadvantaged or denied access on grounds of religious belief (or non-belief). All state-funded schools should be non-religious in character, with children being educated together regardless of their parents’ religion. When a public body grants a contract for the provision of services to an organisation affiliated to a particular religion or belief, such services must be delivered neutrally, with no attempt to promote the ideas of that faith group.
Secularism is not atheism
Atheism is a lack of belief in gods. Secularism simply provides a framework for a democratic society. Atheists have an obvious interest in supporting secularism, but secularism itself does not seek to challenge the tenets of any particular religion or belief, neither does it seek to impose atheism on anyone.
Secularism is simply a framework for ensuring equality throughout society – in politics, education, the law and elsewhere – for believers and non-believers alike.
Secularism protects free speech and expression
Religious people have the right to express their beliefs publicly but so do those who oppose or question those beliefs. Religious beliefs, ideas and organisations must not enjoy privileged protection from the right to freedom of expression. In a democracy, all ideas and beliefs must be open to discussion. Individuals have rights; ideas do not.
Secularism is the best chance we have to create a society in which people of all religions or none can live together fairly and peacefully.
Do you think religion is a personal matter for individuals and something that should never be imposed on people?
Religious privilige
We believe that individuals/groups should neither be accorded privilege nor disadvantaged because of their religion, belief or non-belief.
Privilege is a key concept in modern sociology and social justice. The Oxford Dictionary defines privilege as: “A special right, advantage, or immunity granted or available only to a particular person or group.”
Hierarchies of religious privilege may exist within different groups. For example, a religious leader could be a member of a marginalised group but exercise great control over their own group. Individuals/groups may experience the harm of other’s religious privilege while experiencing the benefit of their own religious privilege. Individuals can be marginalised in other ways while still maintaining religious privilege. Religious privilege can act as a proxy for other forms of privilege including class, race or gender.
How we should respond to different forms or examples of privilege also differs. Some forms of privilege are clearly intolerable and must be responded to through changing or enforcing the law to better protect human rights. Some forms of privilege need to be responded to by changing social attitudes. And some vestiges of religious privilege we can expect to simply fall by the wayside.
When a group is accustomed to being privileged, or has incorporated an assumption of privilege into their sense of identity, then loosing privileges can seem threating. But many religious people realise that by rejecting privilege they gain more personal religious freedom.
Secularism
From Wikipedia, Not to be confused with Irreligion or Secularity.
Secularism may refer to any worldview or principle which defines the secular at a given context, and prioritizes, justifies or promotes it over the non-secular.[1][2] The most common definition of secularism is the separation of religion from civic affairs and the state,[3] yet it may connote anticlericalism, atheism, naturalism, banishment of religious symbols from the public sphere and much more.[4]
As a philosophy, secularism seeks to interpret life on principles taken solely from the material world, without recourse to religion. It shifts the focus from religion towards “temporal” and material concerns.[5]
In political terms, secularism is the principle of the separation of government institutions and persons mandated to represent the state from religious institutions and religious dignitaries.[6] There are distinct traditions of secularism in the West, like the French and Anglo-American models, and beyond, as in India,[4] where the emphasis is more on tolerance for all religions rather than separation. The purposes and arguments in support of secularism vary widely, ranging from assertions that it is a crucial element of modernization, or that religion and traditional values are backward and divisive, to the claim that it is the only guarantor of free religious exercise.
The British writer George Holyoake (1817–1906) coined the term “secularism” in 1851[7]
describe his views of promoting a social order separate from religion, without actively dismissing or criticizing religious belief.
“Secularism is not an argument against Christianity, it is one independent of it. It does not question the pretensions of Christianity; it advances others. Secularism does not say there is no light or guidance elsewhere, but maintains that there is light and guidance in secular truth, whose conditions and sanctions exist independently, and act forever.
Secular knowledge is manifestly that kind of knowledge which is founded in this life, which relates to the conduct of this life, conduces to the welfare of this life, and is capable of being tested by the experience of this life.”[8]
Secularism may be categorized into two types, “hard” and “soft”. “Hard” secularism considers religious propositions to be epistemologically illegitimate and seeks to deny them as much as possible.
The “soft” variety emphasizes tolerance and liberalism.[9]
History[edit]
Although secularism is a modern concept, related ideas may be found in the works of ancient philosophers from many civilizations.[10] Among the earliest documentations of a secular form of thought is seen in the Charvaka system of philosophy in India, which held direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, and sought to reject the prevailing religious practices of that time.[11]
Zeno of Citium and Marcus Aurelius are also notable examples. Secularism emerged in the West with the establishment of reason over religious faith as human reason was gradually liberated from unquestioned subjection to the dominion of religion and superstition.[12]
Secularism first appeared in the West in the Classical philosophy and politics of ancient Greece, disappeared for a time after the decline of the Classical world, but resurfaced after a millennium and a half in the Renaissance and the Reformation.
The subsequent Enlightenment hailed Nature as the “deep reality” that transcended the corrupted man-made institutions of society.
Consequently, the rights of man were not considered as God-given, but as the de facto benefits of Nature as revealed by Reason.[13]
John Locke, Denis Diderot, David Hume, Edward Gibbon, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Baruch Spinoza, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine and other Enlightenment thinkers contributed much to the formation of secularist notions. In recent times, secularism has been represented by such intellectuals as Robert Ingersoll, Bertrand Russell, and Christopher Hitchens.
State secularism
In political terms, secularism is a movement towards the separation of religion and government (often termed the separation of church and state).
This can refer to reducing ties between a government and a state religion, replacing laws based on scripture (such as Halakha, and Sharia) with civil laws, and eliminating discrimination on the basis of religion. This is said to add to democracy by protecting the rights of religious minorities.[14]
Separation of church and state is but one possible strategy to be deployed by secular governments. From the democratic to the authoritarian, such governments share a concern to limit the religious side in the relationship. Each state may find its own unique policy prescriptions. These may include separation, careful monitoring and regulation of organized religion such as in France, Turkey, and others.[15]
A major impact on the idea of state religious liberty came from the writings of John Locke who, in his A Letter Concerning Toleration, argued in favour of religious toleration. He argued that government must treat all citizens and all religions equally, and that it can restrict actions, but not the religious intent behind them.[16]
Secularism is most often associated with the Age of Enlightenment in Europe and it plays a major role in Western society.
The principles, but not necessarily the practices, of separation of church and state in the United States and Laïcité in France draw heavily on secularism.
Secular states also existed in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages (see Islam and secularism).[19]
In accord with the belief in the separation of church and state, secularists tend to prefer that politicians make decisions for secular rather than religious reasons.[20] In this respect, policy decisions pertaining to topics like abortion, contraception, embryonic stem cell research, same-sex marriage, and sex education are prominently focused upon by American secularist organizations such as the Center for Inquiry.[21][22]
Some Christian fundamentalists and scholars (notably in the United States) oppose secularism, often claiming that there is a “radical secularist” ideology being adopted in our current day and they see secularism as a threat to “Christian rights”[23] and national security.[24]
It has been argued that in the US, the concept of secularism has frequently been misinterpreted. Jacques Berlinerblau wrote that “Secularism must be the most misunderstood and mangled ism in the American political lexicon”, and that the religious right purposefully equated it to atheism, communism and other ideologies since the 1970s.[25]
The most significant forces of religious fundamentalism in the contemporary world are Christian fundamentalism and Islamic fundamentalism. At the same time, one significant stream of secularism has come from religious minorities who see governmental and political secularism as integral to the preservation of equal rights.[26]
Some of the well known states that are often considered “constitutionally secular” are the United States,[27] France,[28] India,[29] Mexico,[30] South Korea, and Turkey, although none of these nations have identical forms of governance with respect to religion. For example, in India, secularism includes state involvement and restrictions in religion, while in France, secularism precludes state involvement in religion.[31][32]
Secular society[edit]
In studies of religion, modern democracies are generally recognized as secular. This is due to the near-complete freedom of religion (religious beliefs generally are not subject to legal or social sanctions), and the lack of authority of religious leaders over political decisions. Nevertheless, it has been claimed that surveys done by Pew Research Center show Americans as generally being more comfortable with religion playing a major role in public life, while in Europe the impact of the church on public life is declining.[33]
Modern sociology has, since Max Weber, often been preoccupied with the problem of authority in secularized societies and with secularization as a sociological or historical process.[34] Twentieth-century scholars, whose work has contributed to the understanding of these matters, include Carl L. Becker, Karl Löwith, Hans Blumenberg, M.H. Abrams, Peter L. Berger, Paul Bénichou and D.L. Munby, among others.
Most societies become increasingly secular as the result of social, economic development and progress, rather than through the actions of a dedicated secular movement.
Secular ethics
Main articles: Secular ethics and Secular religion
George Holyoake’s 1896 publication English Secularism describes secularism as follows:
Secularism is a code of duty pertaining to this life, founded on considerations purely human, and intended mainly for those who find theology indefinite or inadequate, unreliable or unbelievable. Its essential principles are three: (1) The improvement of this life by material means. (2) That science is the available Providence of man. (3) That it is good to do good. Whether there be other good or not, the good of the present life is good, and it is good to seek that good.[35]
Holyoake held that secularism and secular ethics should take no interest at all in religious questions (as they were irrelevant), and was thus to be distinguished from strong freethought and atheism. In this he disagreed with Charles Bradlaugh, and the disagreement split the secularist movement between those who argued that anti-religious movements and activism was not necessary or desirable and those who argued that it was.
Contemporary ethical debate in the West is often described as “secular”. The work of well known moral philosophers such as Derek Parfit and Peter Singer, and even the whole field of contemporary bioethics, have been described as explicitly secular or non-religious.[36][37][38][39]
Secularism in late 20th century political philosophy[edit]
Main article: List of secularist organizations
It can be seen by many of the organizations (NGOs) for secularism that they prefer to define secularism as the common ground for all life stance groups, religious or atheistic, to thrive in a society that honours freedom of speech and conscience. An example of that is the National Secular Society in the UK. This is a common understanding of what secularism stands for among many of its activists throughout the world. However, many scholars of Christianity and conservative politicians seem to interpret secularism more often than not, as an antithesis of religion and an attempt to push religion out of society and replace it with atheism or a void of values, nihilism. This dual aspect (as noted above in “Secular ethics”) has created difficulties in political discourse on the subject. It seems that most political theorists in philosophy following the landmark work of John Rawl’s Theory of Justice in 1971 and its following book, Political Liberalism (1993),[40] would rather use the conjoined concept overlapping consensus rather than secularism. In the latter Rawls holds the idea of an overlapping consensus as one of three main ideas of political liberalism. He argues that the term secularism cannot apply;
But what is a secular argument? Some think of any argument that is reflective and critical, publicly intelligible and rational, as a secular argument; […], Nevertheless, a central feature of political liberalism is that it views all such arguments the same way it views religious ones, and therefore these secular philosophical doctrines do not provide public reasons. Secular concepts and reasoning of this kind belong to first philosophy and moral doctrine, and fall outside the domain of the political.[40]
Still, Rawl’s theory is akin to Holyoake’s vision of a tolerant democracy that treats all life stance groups alike. Rawl’s idea it that it is in everybody’s own interest to endorse “a reasonable constitutional democracy” with “principles of toleration”. His work has been highly influential on scholars in political philosophy and his term, overlapping consensus, seems to have for many parts replaced secularism among them. In textbooks on modern political philosophy, like Colin Farelly’s, An Introduction to Contemporary Political Theory,[41] and Will Kymlicka’s, Contemporary Political Philosophy,[42] the term secularism is not even indexed and in the former it can be seen only in one footnote. However, there is no shortage of discussion and coverage of the topic it involves. It is just called overlapping consensus, pluralism, multiculturalism or expressed in some other way. In The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory,[43] there is one chapter called “Political secularism”, by Rajeev Bhargava. It covers secularism in a global context, and starts with this sentence: “Secularism is a beleaguered doctrine.”